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Sunday, March 11, 2018

Explanation of Biology Phrases


Biochemistry (Chapters and Vocabulary) -unit 1-50, 51-100, 101-150, 151-200, 201-250, 251-300, 301-350, 351-400, 401-450, 451-500

DNA Replication, Recombination, and Repair
1: Okazaki Fragments.                                                              
2: Priming.                                                           
3: Origin of Replication in E. coli.                                                        
4: Double-Stranded DNA Can Wrap Around Itself to Form Supercoiled Structures          
5: Topoisomerase II Mechanism.                                                         
6: Structure of Topoisomerase II.                                                         
7: Topoisomerase I Mechanism.                                                          
8: Structure of a Topoisomerase.                                                         
9: Topoisomers.                                                             
10: Linking Number.                                                             
11: DNA Polymerases Require a Template and a Primer                                
12: Conserved Residues among Helicases.                                                
13: Helicase Mechanism.                                                             
14: Helicase Structure.                                                             
15: Proofreading.                                                           
16: Shape Selectivity.                                                             
17: Minor-Groove Interactions.                                                         
18: DNA Polymerase Mechanism.                                                        
19: DNA Polymerase Structure.                                                         
20: DNA Can Assume a Variety of Structural Forms                                    
21: Comparison of A-, B-, and Z-DNA                                                   
22: Z-DNA.                                                          
23: Propeller Twist.                                                             
24: Major and Minor Grooves in B-Form DNA.                                          
25: Major- and Minor-Groove Sides.                                                     
26: Steric Clash.                                                          
27: Sugar Puckers.                                                            
28: B-Form and A-Form DNA.                                                         
29: Faithful copying is essential to the storage of genetic information.              
30: DNA Replication At Low Resolution.                                                
31: Consequences of Strand Separation.                                                  
32: DNA Replication.                                                            
33: DNA Replication, Recombination, and Repair                                       
34: Problems                                                         
35: Summary                                                        
36: Mutations Involve Changes in the Base Sequence of DNA                        
37: Ames Test.                                                         
38: Triplet Repeat Expansion.                                                           
39: Mismatch Repair.                                                             
40: Uracil Repair.                                                            
41: Excision Repair.                                                             
42: Structure of DNA-Repair Enzyme.                                                   
43: Repair Pathways.                                                             
44: Cross-Linked Dimer of Two Thymine Bases.                                         
45: Aflatoxin Reaction.                                                            
46: Acridines.                                                       
47: Chemical Mutagenesis.                                                            
48: Base Pair with 5-Bromouracil.                                                        
49: Base Pair with Mutagenic Tautomer.                                                  
50: Double-Stranded DNA Molecules with Similar Sequences Sometimes Recombine 


Biochemistry (Chapters and Vocabulary) -unit 1-50, 51-100, 101-150, 151-200, 201-250, 251-300, 301-350, 351-400, 401-450, 451-500


51: Recombinases and Topoisomerase I.                                                  
52: Recombination Mechanism.                                                         
53: Holliday Junction.                                                             
54: Recombination.                                                            
55: DNA Replication of Both Strands Proceeds Rapidly from Specific Start Sites
56: Telomere Formation.                                                             
57: Proposed Model for Telomeres.                                                      
58:Eukaryotic Cell Cycle.                                                             
59: Coordination between the Leading and the Lagging Strands.                    
60: Replication Fork.                                                             
61: Structure of the Sliding Clamp.                                                      
62: Proposed Architecture of DNA Polymerase III Holoenzyme.                    
63: DNA Ligase Mechanism.                                                           
64: DNA Ligase Reaction.                                                            

The Immune System
65: Diversity Is Generated by Gene Rearrangements                                    
66: Class Switching.                                                             
67: B-Cell Activation.                                                             
68: B-Cell Receptor.                                                             
69: V( D ) J Recombination.                                                           
70: Light-Chain Expression.                                                           
71: VJ Recombination.                                                             
72: The Kappa Light-Chain Locus.                                                       
73: Antibodies Bind Specific Molecules Through Their Hypervariable Loops    
74: Antibody - Protein Interactions.                                                      
75: Antibodies Against Lysozyme.                                                       
76: Binding of a Small Antigen.                                                         
77: Variable Domains.                                                             
78: The Immunoglobulin Fold Consists of a Beta-Sandwich Framework with Hypervariable Loops         
79: Immunoglobulin Fold.                                                            
80: Antibodies Possess Distinct Antigen-Binding and Effector Units               
81: Variable and Constant Regions.                                                      
82: Immunoglobulin Sequence Diversity.                                                 
83: Properties of immunoglobulin classes                                                  
84: Classes of Immuno-Globulin.                                                        
85: Segmental Flexibility.                                                             
86: Antigen Cross-Linking.                                                            
87: Immunoglobulin G Cleavage.                                                        
88: Immunoglobulin G Structure.                                                        
89: Just as Medieval defenders used their weapons and the castle walls to defend their city, the immune system constantly battles against foreign invaders such as viruses, bacteria, and parasites to defend the organism.             
90: Immunoglobulin Production.                                                        
91: The Immune System                                                                       
92: Problems                                                                                         
93: Summary                                                                                         
94: Immune Responses Against Self-Antigens Are Suppressed               
95: Consequences of Autoimmunity.                                                   
96: T-Cell Selection.                                                                             
97: Major-Histocompatibility-Complex Proteins Present Peptide Antigens on Cell Surfaces for Recognition by T-Cell Receptors                                                                                               
98: HIV Receptor.                                                                                
99: Human Immunodeficiency Virus.                                                  
100: Polymorphism in Class I MHC Protein.           


Biochemistry (Chapters and Vocabulary) -unit 1-50, 51-100, 101-150, 151-200, 201-250, 251-300, 301-350, 351-400, 401-450, 451-500

101: Helper T Cell Action.                                                                    
102: Variations on a Theme.                                                                  
103: Coreceptor CD4.                                                                           
104: Class II MHC Protein.                                                                  
105: Presentation of Peptides from Internalized Proteins.                      
106: Consequences of Cytotoxic-T-Cell Action.                                  
107: T-Cell Activation.                                                                          
108: T-Cell Receptor Complex.                                                             
109: The Coreceptor CD8.                                                                    
110: T-Cell Receptor Class I MHC Complex.                                      
111: T-Cell Receptor.                                                                            
112: Anchor Residues.                                                                          
113: Class I MHC Peptide-Binding Site.                                              
114: Class I MHC Protein.                                                                    
115: Presentation of Peptides from Cytosolic Proteins.                         
116: Intracellular Pathogen.
              
RNA Synthesis and Splicing
117: The Discovery of Catalytic RNA Was Revealing in Regard to Both Mechanism and Evolution              
118: Complex Formed by TATA-Box-Binding Protein and DNA.           
119: Transcription Initiation.                                                                 
120: CAAT Box and GC Box.                                                             
121: TATA Box.                                                                                   
122: RNA Polymerase Poison.                                                              
123: Eukaryotic RNA polymerases                                                       
124: Transcription and Translation.                                                       
125: Transcription Is Catalyzed by RNA Polymerase                           
126: Antibiotic Action.                                                                         
127: Primary Transcript.                                                                        
128: Mechanism For the Termination of Transcription by Rho Protein.      
129: Effect of Rho Protein On the Size of RNA Transcripts.                  
130: Termination Signal.                                                                       
131: RNA-DNA Hybrid Separation.                                                    
132: Transcription Bubble.                                                                    
133: DNA Unwinding.                                                                         
134: Alternative Promoter Sequences.                                                  
135: Structure of the Sigma Subunit.                                                    
136: Prokaryotic Promoter Sequences.                                                  
137: Footprinting.                                                                                  
138: RNA Polymerase Active Site.                                                       
139: Subunits of RNA polymerase from E. coli                                   
140: RNA synthesis is a key step in the expression of genetic information.
141: RNA Polymerase Structures.                                                        
142: An Overview of RNA Synthesis                                                  
143: RNA Synthesis and Splicing                                                         
144: Problems                                                                                        
145: Summary                                                                                       
146: Comparison of Splicing Pathways.                                               
147: Self-Splicing Mechanism.                                                              
148: Structure of a Self-Splicing Intron.                                               
149: Self-Splicing. 
150: The Transcription Products of All Three Eukaryotic Polymerases Are Processed   


Biochemistry (Chapters and Vocabulary) -unit 1-50, 51-100, 101-150, 151-200, 201-250, 251-300, 301-350, 351-400, 401-450, 451-500

151: Selected proteins exhibiting alternative RNA splicing                    
152: Alternative Splicing Patterns.                                                        
153: Splicing Catalytic Center.                                                             
154: Spliceosome Assembly.                                                                 
155: Small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particles (snRNPs) in the splicing of mRNA precursors        
156: Splicing Branch Point.                                                                   
157: Splicing Mechanism Used for mRNA Precursors.                         
158: Splicing Defects.                                                                           
159: Splice Sites.                                                                                   
160: RNA Editing.                                                                                
161: Polyadenylation of a Primary Transcript.                                      
162: Capping the 5 End.                                                                       
163: Transfer RNA Precursor Processing.                                             
164: Eukaryotic Transcription and Translation Are Separated in Space and Time   
165: Transcription-Factor-Binding Sites.                                              
166: Assembly of the Initiation Complex.                                            

The Control of Gene Expression
167: The Greater Complexity of Eukaryotic Genomes Requires Elaborate Mechanisms for Gene Regulation              
168: An Experimental Demonstration of Enhancer Function.                  
169: Enhancer Binding Sites.                                                                
170: Gal4 Binding Sites.                                                                       
171: Higher-Order Chromatin Structure.                                              
172: Homologous Histones.                                                                  
173: Nucleosome Core Particle.                                                            
174: Chromatin Structure.                                                                     
175: Yeast Chromosomes.                                                                     
176: Prokaryotic DNA-Binding Proteins Bind Specifically to Regulatory Sites in Operons           
177: DNA Recognition Through Beta Strands.                                    
178: Helix-Turn-Helix Motif.                                                                
179: Structure of a Dimer of CAP Bound to DNA.                             
180: Binding Site for Catabolite Activator Protein (CAP).                     
181: Binding-Site Distributions.                                                           
182: Induction of the LAC Operon.                                                      
183: Effects of IPTG On LAC Repressor Structure.                            
184: LAC Repressor-DNA Interactions.                                               
185: Structure of the LAC Repressor.                                                   
186: The LAC Operator.                                                                        
187: Operons.                                                                                        
188: Beta-Galactosidase Induction.                                                      
189: Following the Beta-Galactosidase Reaction.                                
190: Programming Gene Expression.                                                    
191: Highly expressed protein-encoding genes of the pancreas and liver (as percentage of total mRNA pool)              
192: The Control of Gene Expression                                                   
193: Chapter Integration Problem                                                         
194: Problems                                                                                        
195: Summary                                                                                       
196: Gene Expression Can Be Controlled at Posttranscriptional Levels     
197: The IRE-BP Is an Aconitase.                                                        
198: Transferrin-receptor mRNA.                                                         
199: Iron-Response Element.                                                                
200: Structure of Ferritin.            


Biochemistry (Chapters and Vocabulary) -unit 1-50, 51-100, 101-150, 151-200, 201-250, 251-300, 301-350, 351-400, 401-450, 451-500


201: Leader Peptide Sequences.                                                           
202: Attenuation.                                                                                  
203: Leader Region of TRP mRNA.                                                    
204: Transcriptional Activation and Repression Are Mediated by Protein-Protein Interactions      
205: Interaction between CBP and CREB.                                          
206: Domain Structure of CREB-Binding Protein (CBP).                     
207: Cyclic AMP-Response Element Binding Protein (CREB).               
208: Chromatin Remodeling.                                                                
209: Structure of a Bromodomain.                                                        
210: Structure of Histone Acetyltransferase.                                        
211: Estrogen Receptor-Tamoxifen Complex.                                      
212: Coactivator Recruitment.                                                              
213: Coactivator-Nuclear Hormone Receptor Interactions.                     
214: Coactivator Structure.                                                                   
215: Ligand Binding to Nuclear Hormone Receptor.                           
216: Structure of Two Nuclear Hormone Receptor Domains.                  

Sensory Systems
217: Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Reveals Regions of the Brain Processing Sensory Information              
218: The Rod Cell.                                                                                
219: The Electromagnetic Spectrum.                                                    
220: Taste Is a Combination of Senses that Function by Different Mechanisms     
221: Schematic Structure of a Metabotrophic Glutamate Receptor.          
222: Schematic Structure of the Amiloride-Sensitive Sodium Channel.     
223: Differing Gene Expression and Connection Patterns in Olfactory and Bitter Taste Receptors.               
224: Evidence that T2R Proteins Are Bitter Taste Receptors.                  
225: Conserved and Variant Regions in Bitter Receptors.                      
226: Expression of Gustducin in the Tongue.                                       
227: A Taste Bud.                                                                                 
228: Examples of Tastant Molecules.                                                    
229: A Wide Variety of Organic Compounds Are Detected by Olfaction 
230: Brain Response to Odorants.                                                        
231: The Cyranose 320.                                                                         
232: Converging Olfactory Neurons.                                                    
233: Patterns of Olfactory Receptor Activation.                                  
234: Four Series of Odorants Tested for Olfactory Receptor Activation.   
235: The Olfactory Signal-Transduction Cascade.                               
236: Conserved and Variant Regions in Odorant Receptors.                  
237: Evolution of Odorant Receptors.                                                  
238: The Main Nasal Epithelium.                                                          
239: Color Perception.                                                                           
240: Sensory Connections to the Brain.                                                
241: Sensory Systems                                                                            
242: Problems                                                                                        
243: Summary                                                                                       
244: Touch Includes the Sensing of Pressure, Temperature, and Other Factors       
245: Magnetotactic Bacterium.                                                             
246: Response of the Capsaicin Receptor to pH and Temperature.           
247: The Membrane Topology Deduced for VR1, the Capsaicin Receptor.            
248: Hearing Depends on the Speedy Detection of Mechanical Stimuli     
249: Ankyrin Repeat Structure. 
250: Model for Hair-Cell Transduction.      









Biochemistry (Chapters and Vocabulary) -unit 1-50, 51-100, 101-150, 151-200, 201-250, 251-300, 301-350, 351-400, 401-450, 451-500
251: Electron Micrograph of Tip Links.                                                
252: Micromanipulation of a Hair Cell.                                                 
253: An Electron Micrograph of a Hair Bundle.                                   
254: Hair Cells, the Sensory Neurons Crucial for Hearing.                     
255: Photoreceptor Molecules in the Eye Detect Visible Light                
256: Recombination Pathways Leading to Color Blindness.                   
257: Evolutionary Relationships among Visual Pigments.                      
258: Comparison of the Amino Acid Sequences of the Green and Red Photoreceptors.    
259: Cone-Pigment Absorption Spectra.                                               
260: Visual Signal Transduction.                                                          
261: Analogous 7TM Receptors.                                                           
262: Atomic Motion in Retinal.                                                            
263: Retinal-Lysine Linkage.                                                                
264: Rhodopsin Absorption Spectrum.                                                 

Protein Synthesis
265: Protein Synthesis                                                                           
266: Ribosomal Protein Structure.                                                        
267: Ribosomal RNA Folding Pattern.                                                 
268: The Ribosome at High Resolution.                                               
269: Ribosomes at Low Resolution.                                                     
270: Aminoacyl-Transfer RNA Synthetases Read the Genetic Code         
271: Classes of Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetases.                                    
272: Classification and subunit structure of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases in E. coli           
273: Microhelix Recognized by Alanyl-tRNA Synthetase.                     
274: Glutaminyl-tRNA Synthetase Complex.                                      
275: Threonyl-tRNA Synthetase Complex.                                          
276: Editing of Aminoacyl-tRNA.                                                       
277: Editing Site.                                                                                  
278: Structure of Threonyl-tRNA Synthetase.                                     
279: Aminoacyl-tRNA.                                                                         
280: Protein Synthesis Requires the Translation of Nucleotide Sequences Into Amino Acid Sequences              
281: Helix Stacking in tRNA.                                                               
282: L-Shaped tRNA Structure.                                                           
283: General Structure of tRNA Molecules.                                         
284: Alanine-tRNA Sequence.                                                              
285: Accuracy of protein synthesis                                                       
286: Polypeptide-Chain Growth.                                                          
287: Protein Assembly.                                                                         
288: Ribosome Structure.                                                                      
289: Problems                                                                                        
290: Summary                                                                                       
291: Eukaryotic Protein Synthesis Differs from Prokaryotic Protein Synthesis Primarily in Translation Initiation              
292: Blocking of Translocation by Diphtheria Toxin.                           
293: Antibiotic Action of Puromycin.                                                   
294: Antibiotic inhibitors of protein synthesis                                      
295: Eukaryotic Translation Initiation.                                                  
296: Protein Factors Play Key Roles in Protein Synthesis                      
297: Structure of Ribosome Release Factor (RRF).                              
298: Structure of a Release Factor.                                                       
299: Translocation Mechanism. 
300: Molecular Mimicry   
                                                       

Biochemistry (Chapters and Vocabulary) -unit 1-50, 51-100, 101-150, 151-200, 201-250, 251-300, 301-350, 351-400, 401-450, 451-500
301: Structure of Elongation Factor Tu.                                               
302: Translation Initiation in Prokaryotes.                                            
303: A Ribosome Is a Ribonucleoprotein Particle (70S) Made of a Small (30S) and a Large (50S) Subunit              
304: Allowed pairings at the third base of the codon according to the wobble hypothesis 
305: A Role for Formylation.                                                                
306: Peptide-Bond Formation.                                                              
307: Mechanism of Protein Synthesis.                                                  
308: Polypeptide Escape Path.                                                              
309: Transfer RNA-Binding Sites.                                                        
310: Formylation of Methionyl-tRNA.                                                 
311: Initiation Sites.                                                                              
312: Polysomes.                                                                                     

Molecular Motors
313: Thick Filament.                                                                              
314: Myosin Motion Along Actin.                                                        
315: Watching a Single Motor Protein in Action.                                 
316: Actin and Hexokinase.                                                                  
317: Actin Structure.                                                                             
318: Sliding-Filament Model.                                                               
319: Sarcomere.                                                                                     
320: Most Molecular-Motor Proteins Are Members of the P-Loop NTPase Superfamily    
321: Effect of nucleotide binding on protein affinity                           
322: Neck Linker.                                                                                  
323: Relay Helix.                                                                                   
324: Lever-Arm Motion.                                                                       
325: Dynein Head-Domain Model.                                                       
326: Structure of Head Domain of Kinesin at High Resolution.               
327: Kinesin at Low Resolution.                                                           
328: Myosin Two-Stranded Coiled Coil.                                              
329: Myosin Light Chains.                                                                    
330: Myosin Structure at High Resolution.                                           
331: Myosin Dissection.                                                                        
332: Myosin Structure at Low Resolution.                                           
333: The horse, like all animals, is powered by the molecular motor protein, myosin.          
334: Motion Within Cells.                                                                     
335: Molecular Motors                                                                          
336: Problems                                                                                        
337: Summary                                                                                       
338: A Rotary Motor Drives Bacterial Motion                                     
339: Chemotaxis Signaling Pathway.                                                    
340: Changing Direction.                                                                      
341: Charting a Course.                                                                         
342: Proton Transport-Coupled Rotation of the Flagellum.                    
343: Flagellar Motor Components.                                                        
344: Flagellar Motor.                                                                             
345: Structure of Flagellin.                                                                    
346: Bacterial Flagella.                                                                          
347: Kinesin and Dynein Move Along Microtubules                            
348: Motion in Ncd.                                                                              
349: Structure of Ncd.                                                                          
350: Kinesin Moving Along a Microtubule.


Biochemistry (Chapters and Vocabulary) -unit 1-50, 51-100, 101-150, 151-200, 201-250, 251-300, 301-350, 351-400, 401-450, 451-500

351: Monitoring Movements Mediated by Kinesin.                             
352: Tubulin.                                                                                         
353: Microtubule Arrangement.                                                            
354: Microtubule Structure.                                                                  
355: Myosins Move Along Actin Filaments                                         
356: Myosin Lever Arm Length.                                            

The Biosynthesis of Membrane Lipids and Steroids
357: The Biosynthesis of Membrane Lipids and Steroids                       
358: Site of Cholesterol Synthesis.                                                       
359: Properties of plasma lipoproteins                                                  
360: HMG-CoA Reductase.                                                                 
361: Cholesterol Is Synthesized from Acetyl Coenzyme A in Three Stages
362: Cholesterol Formation.                                                                  
363: Oxidosqualene Cyclase.                                                                
364: Squalene Cyclization.                                                                    
365: Squalene Synthesis.                                                                       
366: Condensation Mechanism in Cholesterol Synthesis.                       
367: Synthesis of Isopentenyl Pyrophosphate.                                     
368: Fates of 3-Hydroxy-3-Methylglutaryl CoA.                                 
369: Labeling of Cholesterol.                                                                
370: Phosphatidate Is a Common Intermediate in the Synthesis of Phospholipids and Triacylglycerols              
371: Lysosome with Lipids.                                                                  
372: Ganglioside G M1.                                                                        
373: Synthesis of Sphingolipids.                                                           
374: Synthesis of an Ether Phospholipid.                                             
375: Structure of CDP-Diacylglycerol.                                                 
376: Fats such as the triacylglycerol molecule (below) are widely used to store excess energy for later use and to fulfill other purposes, illustrated by the insulating blubber of whales.         
377: Problems                                                                                        
378: Summary                                                                                       
379: Important Derivatives of Cholesterol Include Bile Salts and Steroid Hormones         
380: Three Isoprenoids from Familiar Sources.                                     
381: Vitamin D Synthesis.                                                                    
382: Pathways for the Formation for Androgens and Estrogens.              
383: Pathways for the Formation of Progesterone, Cortisol, and Aldosterone.       
384: Cytochrome P450 Mechanism.                                                     
385: Cholesterol Carbon Numbering.                                                    
386: Biosynthetic Relations of Classes of Steroid Hormones and Cholesterol.       
387: Synthesis of Bile Salts.                                                                  
388: The Complex Regulation of Cholesterol Biosynthesis Takes Place at Several Levels  
389: Lovastatin, a Competitive Inhibitor of HMG-CoA Reductase.          
390: An Atherosclerotic Plaque.                                                           
391: Structure of Propeller Domain.                                                     
392: Structure of Cysteine-Rich Domain.                                             
393: LDL Receptor Domains.                                             
394: Endocytosis of LDL Bound to Its Receptor.                               
395: Schematic Model of Low-Density Lipoprotein.                           

Prelude: Biochemistry and the Genomic Revolution
396: Biochemistry and Human Biology                                                
397: Prelude: Biochemistry and the Genomic Revolution                      
398: Chemical Bonds in Biochemistry                                                  
399: Biochemical Unity Underlies Biological Diversity                         
400: Proteins, Encoded by Nucleic Acids, Perform Most Cell Functions



Biochemistry (Chapters and Vocabulary) -unit 1-50, 51-100, 101-150, 151-200, 201-250, 251-300, 301-350, 351-400, 401-450, 451-500
 
401: Fischer Projections                                                                        
402: Appendix: Depicting Molecular Structures                                   
403: The Properties of Water Affect the Bonding Abilities of Biomolecules          

The Integration of Metabolism
404: The Integration of Metabolism                                                      
405: Fuel sources for muscle contraction                                              
406: Interplay of metabolic pathways for energy production.                  
407: Electron Micrograph of Mitochondria.                                         
408: Covalent Modifications.                                                                
409: Compartmentation of the Major Pathways of Metabolism.               
410: Regulation of Glycolysis.                                                              
411: Regulation of the Pentose Phosphate Pathway.                            
412: Regulation of Gluconeogenesis.                                                    
413: Glycogen Granules.                                                                       
414: Regulation of Fatty Acid Synthesis.                                             
415: Control of Fatty Acid Degradation.                                             
416: Metabolic Fates of Glucose 6-Phosphate.                                     
417: Major Metabolic Fates of Pyruvate and Acetyl CoA in Mammals.     
418: Metabolism Consist of Highly Interconnected Pathways                 
419: Fuel reserves in a typical 70-kg man                                             
420: Metabolic Interchanges between Muscle and Liver.                       
421: Synthesis and Degradation of Triacylglycerols by Adipose Tissue.    
422: Electron Micrograph of Liver Cells.                                              
423: Insulin Secretion.                                                                           
424: Each Organ Has a Unique Metabolic Profile                                
425: Fuel Choice During Starvation.                                                     
426: Synthesis of Ketone Bodies by the Liver.                                    
427: Fuel metabolism in starvation                                                        
428: Entry of Ketone Bodies Into the Citric Acid Cycle.                      
429: Food Intake and Starvation Induce Metabolic Changes                  
430: Dependence of the Velocity of Running on the Duration of the Race.            
431: Fuel Choice During Exercise Is Determined by Intensity and Duration of Activity    
432: Ethanol Alters Energy Metabolism in the Liver                            
433: Summary                                                                                       
434: Problems                                                                                        

Nucleotide Biosynthesis
435: NAD, FAD, and Coenzyme A Are Formed from ATP                   
436: de Novo Pathway for Pyrimidine Nucleotide Synthesis.                 
437: Structure of Carbamoyl Phosphate Synthetase.                            
438: Ammonia-Generation Site.                                                            
439: Substrate Channeling.                                                                   
440: In de Novo Synthesis, the Pyrimidine Ring Is Assembled from Bicarbonate, Aspartate, and Glutamine              
441: de Novo Pathway for Purine Nucleotide Synthesis.                       
442: de Novo Purine Biosynthesis.                                                       
443: Inosinate Formation.                                              
444: Generating AMP and GMP.                                                         
445: Purine Bases Can Be Synthesized de Novo or Recycled by Salvage Pathways           
446: Ribonucleotide Reductase R1 Subunit.                                        
447: Ribonucleotide Reductase R2 Subunit.                                        
448: Ribonucleotide Reductase Mechanism.                                        
449: Thymidylate Synthesis.                                                                 
450: Anticancer Drug Targets.       


Biochemistry (Chapters and Vocabulary) -unit 1-50, 51-100, 101-150, 151-200, 201-250, 251-300, 301-350, 351-400, 401-450, 451-500

451: Suicide Inhibition.                                                                         
452: Deoxyribonucleotides Synthesized by the Reduction of Ribonucleotides Through a Radical Mechanism              
453: Control of Purine Biosynthesis.                                                    
454: Key Steps in Nucleotide Biosynthesis Are Regulated by Feedback Inhibition
455: Purine Catabolism.                                                                        
456: Urate Crystals.                                                                               
457: Disruptions in Nucleotide Metabolism Can Cause Pathological Conditions    
458: Summary                                                                                       
459: Problems                                                                                        
460: Nucleotide Biosynthesis                                                                

Frontmatter, appendices, and other book material:
461: Biochemistry                                                                                 
462: Appendix C: Standard Bond Lengths                                          
463: Standard Bond Lengths                                                                
464: Appendix B: Acidity Constants                                                    
465: Typical pKa values of ionizable groups in proteins                         
466: pKa Values of Some Acids                                                           
467: Appendix A: Physical Constants and Conversion of Units               
468: Standard prefixes                                                                          
469: Conversion factors                                                                        
470: Mathematical constants                                                                 
471: Values of physical constants                                                         
472: Responding to Environmental Changes                                        
473: Synthesizing the Molecules of Life                                               

Biochemical Evolution
474: The Unity of Biochemistry Allows Human Biology to Be Effectively Probed Through Studies of Other Organisms                                                                                                     
475: Biochemical Evolution                                                                  
476: Cells Can Respond to Changes in Their Environments                    
477: Energy Transformations Are Necessary to Sustain Living Systems    

Exploring Proteins
478: Exploring Proteins                                                                         
479: Summary                                                                                       
480: The Purification of Proteins Is an Essential First Step in Understanding Their Function         
481: Zonal Centrifugation.                                                                    

Protein Structure and Function
482: Protein Structure and Function                                                     
483: Summary                                                                                       
484: The Amino Acid Sequence of a Protein Determines Its Three-Dimensional Structure
485: Proteins Are Built from a Repertoire of 20 Amino Acids                 

Oxidative Phosphorylation
486: Oxidative Phosphorylation                                                            
487: ATP yield from the complete oxidation of glucose                        
488: Pathological and other conditions that may entail free-radical injury  

Exploring Evolution
489: Exploring Evolution                                                                      
490: Modern Techniques Make the Experimental Exploration of Evolution Possible          

The Calvin Cycle and the Pentose Phosphate Pathway
491: The Calvin Cycle and the Pentose Phosphate Pathway                   
492: Calvin Cycle.                                                                                 

Regulatory Strategies: Enzymes and Hemoglobin
493: Isozymes of Lactate Dehydrogenase.                                           
494: Ultracentrifugation Studies of ATCase.                                       

Metabolism: Basic Concepts and Design
495: Metabolism: Basic Concepts and Design                                      
496: Activated Carriers Exemplify the Modular Design and Economy of Metabolism       


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